The topic can be proposed by the writer Assignment - 15

The topic can be proposed by the writer - Assignment Example Therefore, does the incorporation of the 10 corporation amount to breaking of the law, which would necessitate the piercing of the corporate veil? The rule of law provides that the piercing of the corporate veil can occur when the corporation is created as a mere alter-ego of its owner, where the corporation does not observe the right formalities, or where the corporation is undercapitalized (Mallor et al., 2013). Further, a court can lift the corporate veil to hold the owners of the corporation personally responsible, if the corporation is created to promote fraud, illegality or injustice (Mallor et al., 2013). The creation of 10 taxi-cab corporations by Carlton is legal, owing to the fact that the law provides for incorporation of enterprises, for the sake of limiting personal liability (Mallor et al., 2013). Further, there has not been provided any limitation as to the number of taxi-cabs that should constitute a tax-cab corporation. In addition, Carlton has provided the required $10,000 of accident liability insurance for each cab. The court should not lift the corporate veil to find Carlton personally liable. This is because; the incorporation of the 10 tax-cab corporations is not an illegality, while the purpose of such incorporation is merely to limit personal liability, and not to commit fraud, illegality or injustice, which could be reasonable ground for lifting the corporate veil (Mallor et al., 2013). Therefore, the court should find that Walkovszky should only hold liable the corporation with two taxi-cabs, from which one knocked him

Supply Determinants of Coffee Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Supply Determinants of Coffee - Coursework Example This research will begin with the statement that agricultural phase involves the cultivation of green coffee employing different methods and treatment such as soil management, use of fertilizers, treatment of pests and harvesting that are influenced by the cultivation practices, a topology of the plantation, and method of harvesting. Upon harvesting two methods can be used to process it namely dry method –is an old, simple and natural method that is mostly is used in processing all Robusta coffee. The other being wet method-here specific equipment and water is used. The Arabica type is mostly processed by this method and it normally produces the better quality that commands high prices in the market. Production phase; involves processing and packaging. The processing in this stage involves storing; cleaning and weighting; roasting; blending; grinding. The powder produced after processing is normally subjected to different processes so as to develop the varieties such as the in stant coffee manufacturer. In the packaging, the stage includes many different types of primary and secondary packaging for roast coffee depending on the choices of the company. Input prices that are inversely proportionate the supply of coffee .i.e. when the prices of raw materials goes up the supply of coffee would reduce; productivity in terms of production cost is directly proportionate the supply .i.e. if involvement of a technology makes production cheap then the supply of the product will definitely shoot; price of substitute is directly proportional to the supply of the product hence if the price is low then the supply of the product with definitely be down; expected future price of the product if expected to accelerate in the future the supply of that product will go down in the present since the producers would be hoarding them for the future. Demand is the number of goods a consumer is able to purchase at a given price. The determinants include The disposable income of th e consumer is directly proportionate to the demand for a product in that should it increase the consumer will demand more; consumer preference is directly proportionately to demand i.e. consumers will tend to demand what they prefer; price of related goods if increases the demand of the substitute will also shoot; expectation of future prices if is to raise the demand of the goods at the present will increase in fear of the price rise.

Social Organization and Kinship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Organization and Kinship - Essay Example As the paper discusses the social relationships are quite important in the society. Some of the social ends that are involved in the social set up of the society are socialization of the children and the constitution of the basic political, economic and religious groups. The kinship involves the people who are sharing the same lineage are in the categories of the descent group, affinity, cognate and the fictive kinship. The kinship associated with the marriage is referred to as the affinity related. Kinship is the centre of the social organization in various societies, and people understand that the kinship should be relevant to the social cognition. Kin is organized around binary distinctive features and is linguistically marked.This essay stresses that the type of the society where one is living influences the person’s interactions and the activities that the person can involve them. The type of the society has great influence on the different areas of the female’s eg os life as the society determines the amount of the social support they get.  In Native America, cultures allow the matrilineal approach where the family lineage is traced through the mothers and not the fathers. The women in the American culture they possess great power as they are treated as the center of the family and home.  In the communities that practice the matrilineal approach of the family make up the males would live with the women after marriage at woman's home.

American Registry for Internet Numbers Essay Example for Free

American Registry for Internet Numbers Essay 1. American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)- Provides services involving technical coordination and management of internet number resources. They support the internet through the management of internet number resources and coordinates the development of policies for the management of IP number resources. They also provide services for technical coordination and management of internet number resources in its respective services region. The services include IP address space allocation and ASN allocation, transfer and record maintenance. B. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)- Responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published as RFC documents and for coordinating some of the key components that keep the internet running efficiently. They allocate and maintain unique codes and numbering systems that are used in the technical standards/protocols that drive the internet. Among such protocols are the domain names, number resources and Protocol assignments. C. Asia-Pacific Network Information Center (APNIC)- An organization that manages the internet number resources within Asia. They provide the number resource allocation and registration services that support the global operation of the internet. 2. An Ipv4 uses 32 bit IP addresses. The max number of of IPv4 addresses is about 4 billion. 3.The max number of Ipv6 addresses is about 48 billion. 4.The world ran out of Ipv4 addresses February 1, 2011. All networks must now allocate Ipv6 addresses. 5. Ipv4 addresses are exhausted 6. Ipv4 is still being used because the address pool supports the continual demands and extends its usefulness. Also because Ipv4 and Ipv6 are not compatible. 7. No because you cant resell them. Sources https://www.arin.net/ https://www.iana.org/ https://www.apnic.net/

Women Entrepreneurs In The Tourism Sector In Zimbabwe Economics Essay

Women Entrepreneurs In The Tourism Sector In Zimbabwe Economics Essay This paper examines the challenges that women entrepreneurs face in the tourism sector in Zimbabwe. The research targeted female entrepreneurs selling curios in Masvingo and Victoria Falls which are the prime tourist destinations in Zimbabwe. Women entrepreneurship has been under spotlight in Zimbabwe because it is a source of economic growth. Despite the potential that lies in women entrepreneurs they face additional or at least different social, cultural, educational and technological challenges than men in establishing and developing their own enterprises, and accessing economic resources. From the interviews conducted women entrepreneurs in the tourism sector have difficulties in securing funding, inadequate business related education as well as social, cultural and religious impediments. This paper engenders to understand the gender biases embedded in society which constrain womens mobility, interactions, active economic participation and access to business development services. Lastly, appropriate interventions are recommended within the discourse of entrepreneurship. Key words: Entrepreneurship, Tourism, Gender, Enterprise development, Women Entrepreneurship Introduction Entrepreneurship is a key driver of capacity building and national development in any country. As such, this paper focuses on challenges faced by women in the tourism sector. On 21 May 2012 there was a forum on Womens Engagement in Africas Tourism Industry in Victoria Falls held during the African Travel Association conference. The presenters included the former Deputy Secretary General of United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) who alluded to the fact that tourism constitutes 30% of the worlds economy and offers 78% of workforce in the world. He further reiterated that research has explicitly shown the gender inequalities that exist in the tourism sector as mostly women and children as compared to the male counterparts are exploited. He further mentioned that in 2008, the UNWTO came up with a policy for gender equality which is envisaged under the United Nations Platform. In 2010, the Global report on Women in Tourism by World Tourism Organization and United Nations women encouraged women to participate in leadership roles in the tourism industry. The report held that although women constitute a high percentage of the workforce in the tourism industry, most of them occupy lower levels where they are subsequently lowly paid. Because of this report, UNWTO suggested that vocational training be offered to empower women in the industry. Tanzania and Gambia were the first two countries chosen to start the vocational training for women entrepreneurs in the tourism industry. Other countries to benefit from the training are from Latin America and Africa. Another presenter a Managing Director of Affluent Hospitality Group in America said that women make up 80% of Travel Agency in America and 80% of travel decisions are made by women in North America. This justifies the fact that women have an active role to play in the tourism industry. In addition the Marketing Director of Amalinda Collection in Zimbabwe gave a testimony of her experience in the Tourism industry. She admitted that as a mother she has a lot of family responsibilities that apart from being a working woman such that she faces the dilemma of choosing between family and business. At one time when her son fell sick at 4 months old she had to quit the job in favour of the family. Family roles represent one of the challenges that women entrepreneurs face in comparison with their male counterparts. The Governor and Resident Minister of Matabeleland North Province of Zimbabwe reported that, 60% of arts and crafts in Zimbabwe are produced by women from Binga who largely produce reed mats and baskets while the Gwaai women produce pottery artifacts. The interesting revelations made at the conference prompted the researchers to consider conducting a research on the challenges that women entrepreneurs face in the tourism industry in Zimbabwe. In current years women-owned businesses have become increasingly popular but entrepreneurship remains a deeply gendered institution (Anderson, 2008). Bushell (2012) considered entrepreneurship as expedition out of paucity and gravitation towards equity but this has not been the case because women remain marginalized globally. Given the constraints facing African women entrepreneurs their full economic potential is not actualized and they do not feature on the mainstream of the economic agenda (Ozigbo and Ezeaku, 2009). There is therefore need for countries to address gender disparities between men and women to achieve significant milestones in economic growth. In addition to those problems faced by all small-scale entrepreneurs, women face additional or at least different social, cultural, educational and technological challenges than men in establishing and developing their own enterprises, and accessing economic resources (Mayoux, 2001). It is important that such challenges be addr essed so as to enable women to prosper in their businesses. Chitsike (2000) and United Nations Industrial Development Organization (2003) mentioned that womens businesses in Zimbabwe tend to be small and are discriminated by the legal system which backs male ideologies. Literature Review In many countries entrepreneurship has been considered a means of generating meaningful and sustainable employment opportunities, particularly for those at the margins of the economy women, the poor and people with disabilities (ILO, 1998; Rajani and Sarada, 2008). However, very little literature exists on the role of women entrepreneurs in a global economy especially in Africa (Dudley, 2008) and this is one of the reasons why women continue to be marginalized in entrepreneurship development. In addition, in cases where the role of women entrepreneurship is articulated there still remains a gap in gender analysis (Dudley, 2008). Research factors affecting performance of women entrepreneurs of their businesses are limited in scope, as any existing research most often focuses on individual characteristics and motives as performance predictors (Teoh and Chong, 2007) at the expense of gender disparities. Despite the economic importance of female entrepreneurs their numbers are lower tha n those for men (Verheul, Van Stel and Thurik, 2006; Carter, 2000; Minniti et al., 2005) and therefore it is of importance to address the barriers to female entrepreneurship. This paper deviates from the former approach by focusing on challenges that women face in entrepreneurial development. Furthermore, the research applies an entrepreneurial development model adapted from Richardson and Howarth (2002a) to analyse the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs in the tourism sector in Zimbabwe as shown in figure 1 below. The model is based on the cross sectional biological structure of a peach fruit. At centre of the model is the seed which represents the entrepreneurial opportunity identified. The inner part adjacent to the seed represents the mesopreneurial (fruit mesorcarp) factors based on the MAIR model by (Gibb and Ritchie, 1982) which include motivation or commitment, skills, abilities and experiences, idea in relation to the market as well as the resources. Williams (1997) co mmented that commitment and dedication of the entrepreneur is critical if they are to prosper whilst Zimmer and Scarborough (1996) attribute failure of small businesses to managerial incompetence and lack of experience among other factors and therefore women entrepreneurs need relevant skills and experience to fully exploit entrepreneurial opportunities. The mesopreneurial factors represent the basic ingredients of business success. The final structural component is the exopreneurial (fruit exocarp) factors which represent the macro environment in which the enterprises operate and it entails the following aspects: The enabling environment which focuses on policy issues, institutions and initiatives which impact on enterprise development in particular the tourism industry in Zimbabwe The socio-cultural and economic context which the social, cultural and religious factors that affect enterprise development. Enterprise Support Sector made up of initiatives and organizations developed to propel enterprise development and how these impact on enterprise development. The Economic/Market Environment which deals with opportunities and threats in the environment. Women entrepreneurs hardly have specialized support institutions to cater for their specific needs (United Nations International Development Organization, 2003). In most cases entrepreneurial and technical training, advisory and information programmes often have to be carried out within a non-conventional set-up (United Nations International Development Organization, 2003). Women entrepreneurs need to have a more supportive environment that is more favourable (Stevenson and St-Onge, 2005) if they are to gain similar recognition that of men. Training programmes developed must take into account their society, culture, community and empowerment (Agbà ©nyiga and Ahmedani, 2008). If significant milestones are to be achieved in female entrepreneurship support systems need to take into account the needs, challenges and unique situation of women to promote women entrepreneurship and avoid failure and lower levels of female entrepreneurship (Drine and Grach, 2010). It is vital to note that c ountries that have developed policies and legislation tailored for women entrepreneurship have witnessed tremendous growth and increase in the numbers of women in business. Enteprise support sector: Government, NGOs, Private Sector, Membership Organizations, donors Endopreneurial factor Seed Entrepreneurial Opportunity The Economic/Market Environment: Opportunities and Threats Enabling Environment for Enterprise: regulations, policies, institutions, institutions and processes Figure 1 Peach Fruit Concept of entrepreneurship: Adapted from Richardson and Howarth (2002a) Mesopreneurial Factors Exopreneurial factors Resources Socio/cultural context: Attitudes, aspirations, confidence and permission idea with market Skills, abilities and experience Motivation and determination Female Entrepreneurship Women Entrepreneurs refer to women or a group of women who initiate organize and operate a business enterprise (Jahanshahi, Pitamber and Nawaser, 2010). McClelland et al. (2005) define a woman-owned business as one which is at least 51% owned by one or more women or in the case of any publicly-owned business, at least 51% of the stock of which is owned by one or more women. In 2010 187 million women were involved in entrepreneurship ranging from 1.5-45.4% of the adult female population in 59 economies (GEM, 2010). It should also be noted that Ghana has 55% of women being involved in entrepreneurship and it is the only economy where there are more women than men entrepreneurs (GEM, 2010). One of the United Nations Millennium Development goals is to promote gender equity and empower women as agents of poverty eradication, hunger, disease and to stimulate sustainable development (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2004). Therefore promotion of women entrepreneurship is vital for the achievement of broader objectives including poverty reduction and economic development. A positive indicator to women entrepreneurship is that African leaders have pledged to take joint responsibility for promoting the role of women in social and economic development by reinforcing their capacity in education and training, facilitating access to credit and assuring their participation in the political and economic life (NEPAD, 2001). The increased role of women in economic development has forced many governments to take an active role in developing policies on women development and gender related issues. Mueller and Dato-on (2010) stipulated that women play a significant role in entrepreneurship but their role remains suppressed in comparison to that of their male counterparts across the globe because of family roles, traditions , cultural and structural constraints which diminish their abilities to lead business (Bushell, 2012). Women bear the responsibility for childcare and homecare and as a result this leads to work-family conflicts (Des, 2001 and Jahanshashi, Pitamber and Nawaser, 2010; Winn, 2005). Chitsike (2000) also stated that men view womens role as that of being at home and not engaging in any business activities that are reserved for men. One of the challenges that women face is unequal access to productive resources and services, including finance and skill upgrading opportunities (United Nations International Development Organization [UNIDO], 2003; Tumbunan, 2009; Sorokhaibam and Laishram, 2003). In many African countries, women inequality lies in economic rights and access to resources as men persist thus preventing women from taking full advantage of the economic opportunities (Ozigbo and Ezeaku, 2009). Degroot (2001) mentions that womens participation as owners of small medium sized business has been constrained due to poor access to market information, technology and finance, poor linkages with support service and unfavourable policy and support mechanisms ( De Groot, 2001). In Zimbabwe domestic chores and agricultural activities do not allow women time to travel to support institutions such as finance houses for advice and information on credit (De Groot, 2001). In many African countries, women spend most of th eir income on the household and fear investing their funds in business ventures for fear of business failure (Ozigbo and Ezeaku, 2009), particularly on food and education for their children. Many of them are afraid to invest their limited funds into a business for fear of failure. Many women entrepreneurs are seldom taken seriously in spheres of credibility and capability, competing and succeeding in a male dominated environment (Ozigbo and Ezeaku, 2009) and this is one of the factors that explain their relatively obscure role in economic development. Despite the fact that many women entrepreneurship is a source of job creation, economic growth and social development many women owned businesses remain stunted by lack of appropriate managerial skills, access to business resources, networking opportunities and access to new markets (Ozigbo and Ezeaku, 2009). The current institutional environment purposes to achieve gender equity but the traditional powers are tilted towards the patriarchal system and therefore maintains the status quo of gender inequity (Goheer, 2003). In Zimbabwe women have largely been marginalized from mainstream economic activities because of the predominant partriarchal system which confines women to domestic roles. 53% of all economic activities in Zimbabwe are performed by women but, this figure remains invisible because it is not accounted for in national statistics and most of the activities are characterized by poor working conditions. It is also worth mentioning at this stage that religion, culture and the socialization process are some of the major factors perpetuating gender inequity in Zimbabwe. This is evidenced by the fact that under the current customary law, women cannot own/inherit land (Chitsike, 2009) and land is one of the resources that are important for entrepreneurial development. Research Methodology Baines and Wheelock (2000) mention that many women have ventured into entrepreneurship but little research has been done on gender and female entrepreneurship. The reasons behind increase of entrepreneurial variances arising out of gender remains unresolved is because women feel that by exposing these issues they deepen their entrepreneurial differences (Calas et.al. 2007 as cited in Peris-Ortiz, Rueda-Armengot and Benito Osorio, 2011). Studying women entrepreneurship is critical because it is an important source of economic prosperity and presently research efforts, policies and programs tend to be skewed towards men and neglect the needs of women entrepreneurs and potential women entrepreneurs (OECD, 2004). In the African context there are very few studies that have focused on female entrepreneurship particularly in the tourism sector and therefore this research seeks to close this gap. In addition, Gelb (2001) states that this is due to lack of indigenous research, inadequate info rmation and methodological constraints (Ozigbo and Ezeaku, 2009). Despite the increasing role, women entrepreneurship theory development and empirical evidence only offer a very blurry picture of women entrepreneurs (Tann, 2008). Subsequently, improved understanding of women entrepreneurs challenges is essential in order to assess their needs, and provide solutions to teething problems they encounter. Although there have been some studies of small businesses in Zimbabwe, none has provided rich qualitative data of female entrepreneurs (Mboko and Smith-Hunter, 2008) and this study endeavors to contribute towards addressing this deficiency. This study is based on the small and medium business entrepreneurs in Zimbabwes Arts and Crafts industry in Masvingo and Victoria Falls. 10 women in Masvingo from Dzimbahwe Crafts and Art Center and 15 from various Crafts Centers in Victoria Falls who were trading at Elephant Hills Hotel during the 37th ATA Conference between from 18-22 May 2012 were interviewed for this research. These towns are top tourism destinations in Zimbabwe and are home to reputable attractions which are The Great Zimbabwe and the Victoria Falls respectively. Interviews were conducted at Dzimbahwe Craft Center situated along the highway to Masvingo Town. For the effectiveness of the conversations, we had to talk to the women while viewing the different artefacts they make. The conversations included negotiations over the products prices that made the interviewers buy some of the items to encourage the women to talk freely. The interview started with more general introductions, some business questions that included who makes the products, how (i.e. whether there is use of machines or just ordinary hands), where, when and why the people do this business. The interviews also covered issues to do with any support the women received in terms of finance, human and material resources, marketing and other business operational areas. In the process, we had to go to the extent of observing the women doing the work like crocheting and weaving the mats, bed and table covers, polishing and decorating the wooden plates, basins and bowls while some were even carving the different items according to their area of specialization. This one day session took us about one and a half hours and we spent $30 to buy some items from the different women who added up to a total of 10 entrepreneurs. In Victoria Falls, we took the advantage of the 37th African Travel Association conference (ATA) that we attended from the 18th to the 22nd of May 2012 at Elephant Hills Hotel. Some selected male and female arts and crafts entrepreneurs from various selling centres of Victoria Falls were given the opportunity by the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority (ZTA) to come and sell their wares free of charge at the venue during the conference days. To promote the entrepreneurs, the ZTA had in their conference program a session for Meeting the African Culture when both mid-morning and afternoon teas were being served at the grounds where the entrepreneurs were selling their products. This was a good opportunity for the conference delegates to meet and discuss with the sellers while at the same time viewing and buying the handicrafts. As researchers, we took advantage of this to carry out our study for 3 consecutive days. On the first day we toured the various stands just to view the items on display and we asked some few general questions like what we did in Masvingo. Some of the questions were about how they come to be part of the ATA conference and the benefits they were expecting from the conference. On the second day we got into in-depth interviews to get details of their operations, marketing, any support and assistance from any institutions towards the success of their businesses. To probe for more information we were appreciating their achievements and sympathizing with their challenges as we were discussing with them during the tea breaks. For the other two days we had to share a table with some women during lunch time so that we could talk more. At times we had to sit together in the conference venue, commenting on what the presenters were saying about tourism entrepreneurship. One good example was a debate on the presentation done by a representative from the Zimbabwe Ministry of Youth, Dev elopment, Indigenization and Empowerment. On the final and third day, we selected some of the artefacts to buy that included the bowls, the big five, basins, Zimbabwe bird (Shiri Hungwe) for Blessing, one of the researchers totem and other items. We spent $50 for the items and we left the women in a very happy mood. As a way of appreciating our concern for them some women gave us some of the items at very low prices and in return we influenced some of our colleagues to buy from them. The total of the interviewees was 25 women. Analysis and Discussion The demographic Profile of Interviewed Women Entrepreneurs Table 4.1 Geographical Location of the Women Entrepreneurs RESEARCH AREA LOCATION Urban LOCATION Rural Masvingo 3 7 Victoria Falls 9 6 Out of the 10 women who were interviewed in Masvingo, 7 were residing in the rural areas and only 3 were from the urban area. From the 15 interviewees in Victoria Falls, 9 were urban residents and only 6 were from the rural area. This data reflects that the handicraft business is done in both rural and urban settings provided there is favourable environment. In Masvingo the majority of entrepreneurs come from their rural homes that surround Nemanwa Arts and Craft center because operating from home reduces any rental costs that can be incurred. The few who stay in the urban area have their husbands working in the town and this business supplements their spouses income. In Victoria Falls the majority of women who are urban dwellers reported that they own houses in the town from the cooperative that was formulated by the Arts and Crafts business operators sometime in 1990. The remaining percentage constitutes those women who own homes in the peri-urban area of the town and are permanent residents of the area. Table 4.2 Age of Women Entrepreneurs AGE GROUP NUMBER Below 25 years 2 26-30 years 4 30-45 years 15 46-50 4 The survey results suggest the relationship between a womans age and entrepreneurs. The likelihood of a woman venturing into business positively increases with the 30 to 45 years age range have the greatest number of women entrepreneurs. Very few women below the age of 25 years want to get into this business probably because they are unable to do the job or have better things to do. Motivations Women who are in art and craft business in Victoria Falls and Masvingo said that they are into this business because they grew up doing the weaving, knitting and pottery activities and to them they see it as a way of their living. In the yester years when tourism was still vibrant in Zimbabwe they could earn more than other people in some professions but as from 2004 to date the business has slowed down due to the economic crisis. These women admitted that they cannot go out of this business because they have no alternative means of survival since their environments are basically in the dry regions of the country. Therefore what is evident in what the women are saying is the fact that tourism fits very well in their livelihood strategies as a source of income. From the findings it emerged that the women are motivated into employment by push factors such as unemployment, inadequate family income and the need to accommodate work and home roles as in the Zimbabwean scenario the womans p lace is the home. The same sentiments were echoed by Vijaya and Kamalanabhan (2009) and Drine and Grach (2010) who reiterated that women are motivated by the desire to provide security for the family and flexibility that entrepreneurship offer between home and family roles. Access to Financial Resources The women entrepreneurs in the arts and crafts industry revealed that their major challenge is their inaccessibility to both investment and operational capital since they have no personal assets to use as collateral which is a prerequisite at the financial institutions. If they happen to get the starting capital they may even face more challenges of getting adequate operational capital to meet their daily supplies of raw materials such as reeds, steel wires, finishing oils, threads, wood, polishes and others to use for their business. At times they may need transport to take their products to and from their homes for security reasons. If these people are operating from the designated sites the local councils would need the rentals every month for the upkeep of the places. The problem of lack of capital usually arises from the fact that the enterprises are the major contributors to the survival of the family, and this puts a brake on efforts for improvement of womens enterprises in Zi mbabwe (Degroot, 2001). On the accessibility to capital, one woman at the ATA conference for Young Professionals in Victoria Falls narrated her ordeal of trying to get financial assistance from the Ministry of Indigenization and Youth Development that promotes indigenous entrepreneurs in the country. Grace said, When I went to the offices I was told to bring a project proposal. I prepared that at my own expense. After that they gave me a pile of forms to fill in whose other requirements i could not understand. As if that was not enough, I was told to wait for a response that never came to my attention and these people lie that they are supporting us financially. Another woman, Nyaradzo narrated that, The Ministry of Indigenization and Youth Development, asked for a list of all entrepreneurs who needed financial assistance and the specific amounts requested and were handed to the ministry but nothing materialized. The ministry later on asked the women entrepreneurs to pay $20 per person for a weeks training in financial management. After paying the money nothing has been done since November 2011. She said Vanhu ava matsotsi anodakubira varombo, havana basa nesu, (These people are conmen, who steal from the poor and they do not care about us). This is a major challenge for the women who are vulnerable to all sorts of financial risks in business. Most women also revealed that most financial institutions were not keen to finance their business initiatives. This negative attitude towards financing of women entrepreneurs is explained by the traditional patriarchal system division which spells out the differences of male-female roles in society as supported by Ozigbo and Ezeaku (2009). Protection of intellectual property rights A number of women entrepreneurs fall prey to political promises and business intermediaries. One woman who failed to get funding from the Ministry of Indigenization and Youth Development later discovered that her project was being implemented by one of the government officials in Victoria Falls. She had no voice over it. Because of this, many women in the sector feel betrayed and humiliated because of such practices. This rhymes the Shona proverbs that murombo haarovi chine nguwo (This literally means the poor will never challenge the rich). It is important for women entrepreneurs to be well versed with their intellectual property rights so that they can challenge those who prey on their ideas in judiciary. Production and space-related challenges The study has revealed that a number of Zimbabwean women who are arts and crafts entrepreneurs have no fixed place for their business operations as they are dotted from their homes, forest and some few designated arts and craft centres. The designated centres have no permanent structures put in place but there are some temporary shades which are brought by the individuals from their homes. These offer no security at all as they are just open spaces for business and in addition one is exposed to the harsh forces of the natural environment. Those who operate from the forests (source of raw materials) cite transportation problems as one of the challenges. For example, if a wood carver finds a good tree in the forest which is too big to carry home or at the designated area she has to work on it from there and then carry the finished products. These pose a lot of risks to the females since there are a lot of dangers associated with forestry environments. Storage space for the finished products is another problem for most women entrepreneurs. Most leave the products covered by some cloths or tents during the night in the presence of either a guard or unattended at owners risk. Lack of storage space puts the products at risk of theft. The most special wares are taken back home daily which is a tiresome task for the females since most of them walk a distance of about 5 kilometres every day from their homes to the designated centres. Family roles At home there is usually a challenge of divided concentration between home chores and work and at home the working space is limited and not conducive for business operations. One woman (Maria) even expressed that, handingazosiyi mumba mune tsvina nekuda kwebasa (I cannot leave my house dirty because of work). Already this indicates how busy women entrepreneurs are with household and business responsibilities at any given time of their lives and this is a hindrance to effective business operations. In support, De Groot (2001) posits that household roles deprive women of time to travel to enterprise support institutions or to attend training sessions to acquire skills in various fields. As long as womens responsibilities remain divided between work and domestic roles their contributions to economic development will remain obscure. Marketing operations There is a general belief that Zimbabwe arts and crafts are unique worldwide and they are found in many countries these days in China besides the Americas which used to be the countrys chief tourism source market. These products have made Zimbabwe boast of its rich and unique culture The majority of women sell their products to the foreign tourists. Financial constraints make it difficult for the women to access regional and international markets despite the high demand for the Zimbabwe art and craft in these markets. It was reported that in the past years when tourism was at peak (i.e. between 1990 and 1999) business was lucrative and there was no worry of exporting the products as buyers could come to the country and buy the products. During the period business was very lucrative. Masundire (2011) identified the need to assist arts and crafts producers to access foreign markets as 90% of their wares are in demand in Europe, America, Australia and South Africa. As a result of inaccessibility to foreign markets, there is now the emergence of market intermediaries popularly known as the cross boarder traders who buy and sell the products from arts and crafts producers in foreign markets. The major problem these intermediaries pose is that they bid to buy the wares at a very low price at the expense of the producers because of the low local demand. In fact, the women entrepreneurs end up with no fix

Benefits of Flexitime in the Public Sector

Benefits of Flexitime in the Public Sector Flexible working time is a new style of work condition which has its root from the German word Gleitzeit which means sliding time. It may be defined as a variable work schedule which allows persons to fulfill their obligations outside a rigid framework of time. Flexitime allows an employee to choose the time when he will start work and when he will finish but with a core time when everybody must be present which is normally a period of four to six hours in the middle of the traditional work schedule(Rubin,1979). Flexitime has been basically categorized into three types namely, gliding or variable time where the employees can change their arrival and departure time whenever they want as long as they are present for a core period of time. Flextour also allows workers to change their arrival or departure time but they must specify in advance when they will arrive and depart for a period of one or two weeks. Here also there is a core period to cover. A third type of flexitime is a completely flexible one where there is no core period. Employees can come and depart as long as a cover a set number of hours per week or per month(Estes,1990). A basic model of flexitime may be summarized as below: A bandwidth which is the earliest time at which employees start work up to the latest finishing time (e.g. 6.00 am to 6.30 p.m). A core time within which all employees are present at work (e.g. 10.00 to 12.00 a.m and 2.00 to 4.00 p.m). In fact it is management who usually set the core time whereas the flexible time is decided by the employee based upon mutual consent (Nadler et al,2010). A flexible band of hours during which the employees might vary the time of starting work in the morning and/or the time of quitting work in the afternoon . Banking, which permits the employees to accumulate excess or shortage of hours worked. The introduction of flexitime in the Public Sector has been a subject of big debate since a very long time. Various studies have been done on this subject in many countries. Nowadays, many organizations are in a state of change and given the rapid development in the business environment worldwide, the need for managing employees effectively was never as significant as it is today. Moreover, increased globalization, technological evolution, new laws and regulations, changing economic and social environment are all pressing organizations to be more competitive and finding better ways of collaborating and ensuring a harmonious relation between management and employees. Trust has to be built in corporate governance, in business strategies and in the future success of work and also in the skills, abilities and desires of the workforce. The aim of this paper is to debate on the whole concept of flexitime, also defined in some papers as flexible work arrangements. The objectives of the research are summarized as follows: Why the need for flexitime To show the impact of flexitime in the life of civil servants To show whether flexitime reduces stress and increases job satisfaction and staff morale To show if it gives rise to more efficient work practices by improving productivity and performance Seek to analyse whether flexitime helps workers to reconcile work with family responsibilities Whether flexitime helps in reducing lateness and absenteeism Whether flextime contributes in reducing the need for overtime To demonstrate whether flexitime enhances motivation of employees at their workplace Try to analyse the concept from both a management and employee point of view Seek to analyse its advantages and disadvantages both to management and to employees The information has been extracted both from the private and public sectors. Background and overview Different studies have been carried out in many countries on the concept of flexitime and each one has come up with its own conclusions. During the 1960s there was a labour shortage in Germany. ChristelKraemerer then came up with the concept of flexitime to encourage housewives and mothers to join the labour market to address this particular problem. Thus the strict rule of standard work schedule no longer exists where more than 75% of the workforce are for flexible working schedule( Kattenbach et al., 2010). By 1972 the United States had started flexitime on a pilot basis(Rubin,1979). In 2003 the UK government passed a legislation giving the right to employees having children under six or having disabled children under eighteen, to request a flexible work arrangement and by April 2007 the law included this facility to carers of adults(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flextime). William R. Estes had come up with a meta-analysis of the effects of flexitime over a large number of circumsta nces. He made use of results of previous research articles to demonstrate the effects of flexitime on absenteeism, productivity, overtime costs, leisure/family time, job satisfaction, role conflict, turnover, transport problems, and the desire to continue the use of flexitime. The meta analysis concluded that it was easier to implement flexitime in small organizations than in bigger ones. This is mainly due to the complexity of larger organizations and to the number of employees compared to smaller organizations. It also showed that flexitime increases job satisfaction, reduces absenteeism and abuses on leaves entitlement, improved employee behavior. But, on the other hand it did not have big effect on productivity. Flexitime is also perceived as being a modern tool for managing resources more effectively, efficiently and economically(Khamkaya and Sloan,2009). In todays competitive world people is seen to be one of the key resources which can bring success to an organization(wickramasinghe and Jayabandhu, 2007). In this context, the effective management of human resources is an important feature in the adoption of flexitime in an organization.A study on the implementation of flexitime in the Scottish Local Authorities showed reluctance on the part of employees due to cultural change, inadequate support from the current organizational policy. Changing a long lasting culture in an organization is perhaps one of the most difficult task an organization and management can face. Although there are many benefits pertaining to the adoption of flextime, the success obtained in one organization does not guarantee that it will work in other organisations also. Management, employers perception, employees pe rception, the working environment will play a big role and will vary from one organization to the other. Flexitime was introduced in an IT sector in Sri Lanka which put more emphasis on people management. Effective human resource management contribute highly to the realization of capital growth and technological expansion. Some studies have shown that female workers are more in favour of flexitime as it helps them to coordinate more effectively their work and their private life commitments. When both parents are working in a family there is a greater need for flexitime as it enables them to properly handle their family responsibilities and any other commitments they may have for example, the pursuance of higher studies. Employees were all in favour of flexitime and would like to have it in all workplaces. Employers were able to have the trust of employees, their full commitment and increase their potential. Welch and Gordon(1980) had found that flexibility encouraged employees to remain with the same employer for longer. However, the sri Lankan study revealed that this was not necessari ly the case. It must be emphasized that the Sri Lankan study is more recent and was conducted twenty seven years later where many changes have occurred in the working environment and conditions. Similarly concerning the gender issue other studies suggested that female workers were more in favour of flexitime, the findings in the Sri Lankan context revealed that there were no significant differences between males and females perceptions. Management systems are modernizing and there is a need to develop strategies like flexitime in a globally competitive environment(Wickramasinghe, Jayabandu (2007)). Flexitime has also been implemented throughout the Queensland public sector since 1996. But this study revealed that flexitime created much frustrations among employees. This was mainly due to the arising of long working hours and inadequate time off. Employees were allowed to bank their excess hours worked up to a maximum of thirty hours. Some employees accumulated up to 800 excess hours and could not take it as there was a significant lack of staff. But there were other areas in the same organization where staff were able to take timeoff due to to the conscious decisions of managers. Also flexitime caused a decrease in socialization in the workplace as colleagues could not meet their friends as each had his own time of coming and going and taking breaks. There was also lack of proper regulations to monitor the system. The study showed the importance of regulation and good management of the system to increase employee welfare. Although there are great benefits from flexitime it can also have detrimental effects if it is not properly managed(http://www.freepatentsonline.com). A study on flexitime in the National Health Services (NHS) in UK showed that it brought much happiness to employees. It was studied as an aspect of Improving Working Lives (IWL) standard in an NHS Acute Trust. Over a third of the employees considered the implementation of flexitime as a give and take approach. They felt that they have to and they wanted to perform better in return of the advantages they got from the flexible arrangements. They perceived much happiness as they felt that they were well treated and valued and that there was a reduction of stress in their daily lives. However the study had a limited conception. It laid emphasis on only one aspect, that is IWL (Atkinson and Hall, 2011). Sanchez et al.,(2007) have said Flexibility is a source of competitive advantage. Enhancing flexibility may be costly in the short run, but it gets easier over time. Firms become more flexible because their managers emphasise the importance of flexibility and because they practice being fl exible. A self-reinforcing process then begins. The Implementation of Flexitime in the Mauritian public sector The introduction of flexitime in the Mauritian Civil Service has been advocated since 1993 by the Pay Research Bureau so as to solve the problems of late arrivals in office due to traffic congestion and other family problems. In its report of 2003 the PRB has recommended that subject to the approval of the Ministry of Civil Service Affairs and Administrative Reforms and after consultation with the staff side, Ministries/Departments/Organisations should expedite the introduction of flexitime where demand exist and resources permit. Flexitime would normally not be applicable to certain categories of officers due to the nature of their duties, for example: Officers operating on a shift system, roster basis and staggered hours Officers in the manual grades Officers in the disciplined force Officers in the education sector A survey had also been undertaken in this context. The conclusions were that organisations which had adopted flexitime had been effective in combating excessive/regular tardiness. The absence of a computerised system of attendance and additional resources required were one of the major hindrances for its application in other sectors. Lack of supervision was also an issue. Those working in teams also dont find it suitable to their needs and it was also difficult to evaluate work performed after normal working hours in terms of productivity. Some Chief Executives have made some favourable observations. They say that flexitime can increase productivity, improve performance and reduce overtime costs if used judiciously and effectively. It can also increase efficiency and improve quality of life of employees. It can also combat lateness and prevent abuse of leave by officers and is a good management tool (PRB Report 2008). The report has further laid emphasis on the responsibility of management and employees in the public sector. Management Responsibilities The PRB has spelt out the responsibilities of management on the application of flexitime as follows: (a) introduction of irregular workweek whereby employees have early arrival times and late departure times; (b) ensuring that there is adequate office coverage during official hours and that customer service and work requirements are not adversely affected by employee participation in alternative work schedules; (c) ensuring that employee participation in alternative work schedules is equitable and consistent across work units within the organization; (d)complying with all procedural requirements on certification of time and attendance and work schedules (e) communicating and seeking mutual agreement with the employees on work schedules (f) planning office workflow to ensure that there is productive work for employees to perform (g) suspending an employees alternative work schedule when workload requirements, temporary duty, or training preclude participation (h) informing employees as soon as practicable of any modifications in work schedule (i) making a concerted effort to schedule office meetings during core hours; and (j) to ensure monitoring and supervision in establishing work hours, prohibit abuses and take corrective measures if abuses occur. Employees Responsibilities The responsibilities of the employees on the introduction of flexitime as pointed out in the PRB Report 2003 are as follows: (a)complying with all procedural requirement regarding certification of time and attendance and work schedules to which they are assigned; (b)communicating and seeking mutual agreement with the supervisor on work schedules; and maintaining records of daily time and attendance in accordance with office procedures. Advantages of Flexitime There are many advantages resulting from the introduction of flexitime. And it is beneficial to employees, employers and management. The advantages of flexitime from a point of view of management: Improvement in productivity With the implementation of flexitime it is felt that absenteeism and turnover are reduced, and job satisfaction is improved in an organisation. Flexitime is also associated with increased productivity and morale and reduced absenteeism. Overtime The need for overtime is not felt as employees can manage busy and slack periods. Management can also do a saving on item of overtime. Moreover, completion of lengthy work assignments can be completed without resorting to overtime . Efficiency Flexitime can help employees to combine their work and personal responsibilities, and can help workflow to be managed more efficiently. (a) domestic matters can be dealt with in employees own time (b) details of employees time keeping is readily available ( c) the existence of a scheme can act as a positive tool in recruitment The advantages of flexitime from employee perspective: Reduces stress and fatigue It relieves officers of their stress and help them to better manage the balance between work commitments, family responsibilities and lifestyle choices to the advantages of the services. It helps employees to better cope with both the work and the household and child care responsibilities. It also makes travelling easier out of peak hours. Greater staff morale and job satisfaction Flexitime promotes happiness Employees perceive that flexible work schedule brings them joy (Atkinson and Hall,2010). They are also able to vary working time thus enjoying time-autonomy which positively influence performance. This autonomy acts as motivator to job satisfaction. There is also a team spirit and morale is high. Reduces delayed arrival caused by traffic congestion Flexitime allows you to schedule your travel and time to avoid congestion More in control of their workloads and manage a better balance between personal life and work Allows bank time ( accrued flex balance hours) to be used for leisure/ personal activities. Increased opportunity to fit other commitments and activities in with work, and make better use of their free time. Personal matters therefore can be sorted without having to take time off. Todays workforce increasingly consists of women and workers in alternative family structures such as single headed and dual earner families. Faced with more pressing demands from both the workplace and home these employees often divide time between these two competing interest. Among those likely to benefit to greater workplace flexibility are prime working age women, women household heads, and employees in two earner families. Advantages from Employer Perspective Flexitime takes away the easy audit of who is punctual and who is not. It makes the employee accountable for his own timekeeping and makes rigid timekeeping by the supervisor unimportant. It shifts focus of management from monitoring of attendances to productivity of the employee. It leads to joint accountability of workers and management . Absenteeism is reduced and in many cases the need for overtime is not felt. Retention of employees who seek flexible work arrangement (Nadler et al, 2010) Workers feel more responsible to the organisation and an atmosphere of partnership between employer and employee develops. Although flexitime is the most popular way of varying daily hours it has its limitations, and is not suitable for all job roles and workplaces, and other flexible options may provide better solutions. Flexitime works best, as with all alternative working patterns, as part of a package of options available to help employees balance their work and personal lives and the organisation meet its business objectives. However, this system has brought some difficulties in the work practice. The main disadvantages resulting from flexitime are: Perceived loss of management control Extra hours of supervision may be required There is potential for abuse of the flexible work periods Greater co-ordination of working arrangements is required to maintain cover Cover is lessened due to additional time off under flexi leave Staff who cannot be afforded flexible working hours experience resentment Cost of implementing control systems/equipment Additional work for personnel/supervisory staff e.g. inputting time credits for leave and adjustments, recording of flexi leave To what extent the introduction of flexitime can be successful in reality for Mauritius is still a question of big debate. Proper planning is very important. Although the Pay Research Bureau has recommended its implementation but what has been done and what is being done is still under consideration. From the literature review it is seen that all researches which have been conducted in this field there are varying views from different authors. Some have brought forward many advantages and others have noticed many drawbacks. Some employees have derived much satisfaction while others have experienced much frustration especially due to the long hours culture which has developed. Likewise some employers have seen major improvements in the quality of work while others are still sceptical as to the success of this strategy. Some are also fearful that it would lead to anarchy in production and that the costs of implementation would exceed the benefits. Through this paper we will try to anal yse a general perception of flexitime in the Mauritian public sector and will it be really successful in our context taking into consideration all the constraints.

Vodou Religion :: essays research papers

Vodou, a traditional Afro-Haitian religion, is a worldview encompassing philosophy, medicine, justice, and religion. Its fundamental principle is that everything is spirit. Humans are spirits who inhabit the visible world. The unseen world is populated by lwa (spirits), mystà ¨ (mysteries), anvizib (the invisibles), zanj (angels), and the spirits of ancestors and the recently deceased. All these spirits are believed to live in a mythic land called Ginen, a cosmic â€Å"Africa.† The God of the Christian Bible is understood to be the creator of both the universe and the spirits; the spirits were made by God to help him govern humanity and the natural world. The primary goal and activity of Vodou is to sevi lwa (â€Å"serve the spirits†)—to offer prayers and perform various devotional rites directed at God and particular spirits in return for health, protection, and favour. Spirit possession plays an important role in Afro-Haitian religion, as it does in many other world religions. During religious rites, believers sometimes enter a trancelike state in which the devotee may eat and drink, perform stylized dances, give supernaturally inspired advice to people, or perform medical cures or special physical feats; these acts exhibit the incarnate presence of the lwa within the entranced devotee. Vodou ritual activity (e.g., prayer, song, dance, and gesture) is aimed at refining and restoring balance and energy in relationships between people and between people and the spirits of the unseen world. Vodou is an oral tradition practiced by extended families that inherit familial spirits, along with the necessary devotional practices, from their elders. In the cities, local hierarchies of priestesses or priests (manbo and oungan), â€Å"children of the spirits† (ounsi), and ritual drummers (ountà ²gi) comprise more formal â€Å"societies† or â€Å"congregations† (sosyete). In these congregations, knowledge is passed on through a ritual of initiation (kanzo) in which the body becomes the site of spiritual transformation. There is some regional difference in ritual practice across Haiti, and branches of the religion include Rada, Daome, Ibo, Nago, Dereal, Manding, Petwo, and Kongo. There is no centralized hierarchy, no single leader, and no official spokesperson, but various groups sometimes attempt to create such official structures. There are also secret societies, called Bizango or Sanpwà ¨l, that perform a religio-juridical function. A calendar of ritual feasts, syncretized with the Roman Catholic calendar, provides the yearly rhythm of religious practice.